Microcontrollers
Tiny computers on a single chip — CPU, memory and peripherals — that control almost every electronic device.
A microcontroller (MCU) combines a processor core, flash memory, RAM and peripherals (GPIO, timers, ADC, UART, SPI, I2C, PWM) on one chip. Unlike a PC, it boots instantly, uses milliwatts or less, and runs one program forever.
Popular families: AVR (ATmega328P in the Arduino Uno), ARM Cortex-M (STM32, RP2040), ESP32 (Wi-Fi + Bluetooth), PIC and 8051.
Sub-topics (8)
Microcontroller vs Microprocessor
A microcontroller is a complete system on a chip; a microprocessor needs external memory and peripherals.
Microcontroller Architecture
CPU core, buses, memory map, clock system and Harvard vs von Neumann designs.
GPIO
General-purpose input/output pins: configure them as inputs or outputs, with pull-ups and drive limits.
Timers and PWM
Hardware timers count clock cycles to measure time, create delays, and generate PWM signals.
Microcontroller ADC
Reading analog sensors with the built-in ADC — reference voltage, resolution and sampling.
Watchdog Timer
A safety timer that resets the microcontroller if the software stops responding.
Low-Power Modes
Sleep modes let battery devices run for years by switching off clocks and peripherals between tasks.
Popular Development Boards
Arduino, ESP32, Raspberry Pi Pico, STM32 and Raspberry Pi — what each is good for.
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