Digital to Analog Converters

DACs turn numbers into voltages — R-2R ladders, PWM-based DACs and key specs.

Intermediate

$V_{out} = V_{ref} \frac{\text{code}}{2^N}$

R-2R ladder — only two resistor values; easy to build discretely.
PWM + RC filter — a cheap "DAC" from any microcontroller: average voltage $= D \times V_{CC}$ , with the RC filter well below the PWM frequency.
Sigma-delta DACs — high-resolution audio.

Specs: resolution, settling time, INL/DNL (linearity) and glitch energy.

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